The new trends in the women consumption of drugs, alcohol and tobacco in the Era of Globalization

The new trends in the women consumption of drugs, alcohol and tobacco in the Era of Globalization

By: Jorge Yeshayahu Gonzales-Lara

Changing rapidly and consequent repercussions
In new trends in the women consumption
of drugs, alcohol and tobacco in the United States.

Entering the world of globalization and the twenty-first century has brought great changes in the female identity, which can contribute significantly to the understanding of certain psychological, emotional, and social in a world of globalization not only at personal evolution, but also on the social implications. One problem is drugs, alcohol and tobacco consumption and is evident, the female drugs addiction. The women are in a condition of greater vulnerability than men and are more heavily exposed to risks to their health and physical appearances are the phases of the menstrual cycle, this is one aspect in this essay, regarding the social, political, economic, psycho and pathological aspects.

The system of social-health services in the United States for treatment and rehabilitation does not seem to take this into account sufficiently for underestimating their specific needs and therefore propose that intervention protocols are the same as men has not been do take into account aspects of female identity, which has to do with the behavior and psycho-social vision of the world of women, influenced by media advertising, beauty contests, the presentation of women often as a visual object and the real world of the woman responsible towards society, the sons and daughters, young single mothers and the social pressure and stress.

Today, we live in a world which is changing rapidly and in continuation. A deeper understanding, of the subject of female identity can undoubtedly contribute significantly towards the understanding of certain psychological aspects, not only at a personal evolutional level but also regarding the social implications since they are the ones most affected by these cultural changes such as life-style, music-style influence, with the consequent repercussions in new trends in the consumption of drugs, alcohol and tobacco.

Going through the literature, one has the impression that the theoretical reflections on the process of female identification do not keep up with the personal and psychopathological and sociologist aspects. Above all, this is true in connection with the phenomena of drugs, alcohol and tobacco addiction where the epidemiological importance of women undoubtedly represents a part of the problem which cannot be ignored.

The female drug, alcohol and tobacco consumption

Indeed, when a problem of drug abuse becomes evident, the female drug, alcohol, and tobacco consumption appears in a condition of greater vulnerability than the male and is more seriously exposed to risks for her health and physical integrity. An addict is a person whose life is controlled by drugs in different of levels. This condition, which is already at a disadvantage, is made worse by the fact that the system of the social-health services for treatment and rehabilitation does not seem to take this factor sufficiently into consideration by underestimating her specific needs and therefore proposing protocols of intervention that are the same as the males. The addicts are people in the grip of a continuing and progressive illness whose ends are always the same: jails, institutions, and death. Perhaps female addict that admit that have a problem with drugs, but you don’t consider their self an addict.

All of us have preconceived ideas about what an addict is. There is nothing shameful about being an addict once you begin to take positive action, but in female identity is a condition of greater vulnerability than the male as cultural changes such as life-style with the consequent repercussions than the male.

The fact that the female drug, alcohol and tobacco addicts are a clear minority in respect to the males, with a rate of less than in the United States, leads to the situation that together with the needs for assistance on the one hand, and the whole of the evolutionary potentiality are often conformed by an interpretation of the situation which takes on a prevalently male connotation.

The study of drug abuse by women, the phases of the menstrual cycle are rarely taken into account. The menstrual cycle has dramatic effects on a woman’s body, and nevertheless drugs are rarely given with consideration of this fact. Because the hormonal fluctuation encountered during the menstrual cycle may affect the outcome of studies with a particular drug of choice. (Alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, heroin). Although people often use drugs, high rates of anxiety and depression occur more frequently in women of child bearing age, yet psychotropic drugs are not studied adequately in the younger female population. Changes during phases of the menstrual cycle affect how drugs are absorbed into the body.

The time sustained-release drugs spend in certain parts of the gastrointestinal tract is critical for absorption. Time changes also can be critical to maintaining therapeutic blood levels in women during various menstrual cycle phases. Medical professionals also know that older women metabolize benzodiazepines much faster than older men. Women’s decrements of liver function are different from men’s .

The treatment system was developed when most patients were men

However, the drug abuse treatment system was largely developed at a time when most patients were men; there is concern that this system is not sufficiently responsive to women’s economic, social, and emotional issues.

In the most general form, and according to Llopis, Castillo and Rebullida in a study of 2003, the association between psycho-pathological addictive disorder and traits in women often have a relationship with a history of sexual abuse, rape and abuse. Another aspect that is particularly relevant in a drugs, alcohol and tobacco dependence in women is undoubtedly the fact that one or more parents have had, earlier this dependency. As for the personal, familial, social and labor faced by women who suffer from a disorder of alcohol or drug dependency of a greater number of suicide attempts in case of men.

The female identity play important role to understand of certain social psychological aspects, not only at a personal evolutional level but also regarding the social implications, and changing rapidly and consequent repercussions in new trends in the consumption of drugs.

Addiction impact women in different manner of their lives

The social influence refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of others. Like the study of attitudes, it is a traditional, core topic in social psychology. In fact, research on social influence overlaps considerably with research on attitudes and persuasion. The social influence is also closely related to the study of group dynamics, as most of the principles of influence are strongest when they take place in social groups.

There is growing evidence according the researchers that the effects of alcohol, tobacco and drugs abusers and addiction impact women in the different manner of their lives: psychosocial, biological mechanisms, behavioral responses, progression and developmental stages, sexual abuse, victimization, pregnant women, the co-morbidity, the recruitment-retention, and the treatment outcomes.

The psychosocial influence refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of others. Like the study of attitudes, it is a traditional, core topic in social psychology. In fact, research on social influence overlaps considerably with research on attitudes and persuasion. Social influence is also closely related to the study of group dynamics, as most of the principles of influence are strongest when they take place in social groups.

The behavioral responses studies have shown that fundamental gender differences may exist in the reinforcing and stimulus properties of abused drugs. On measures of stimulant-induced activity, females exhibit more responsiveness than males; moreover, this responsiveness varies with the estrus cycle.

The progression studies shows that the developmental stages of drugs are not identical for males and females. In the progression from legal drugs use to illicit drugs consumption, for example, cigarettes have a relatively larger role for females than for males, and alcohol has a relatively larger role for males than for females; with regard to initiation into illicit drugs, data suggest that women are more likely to begin or maintain cocaine use in order to develop more intimate relationships, while men are more likely to use the drug with male friends and in relation to the drug trade. The onset of drug abuse is later for females and the paths are more complex than for males. For females there is typically a pattern of breakdown of individual, familial, and environmental protective factors and an increase in childhood fears, anxieties, phobias, and failed relationships; the etiology of female drug abuse often lies in predisposing psychiatric disorders prior to abusing drugs.

Sexual abuse and childhood sexual abuse associated with drug abuse

The sexual abuse and childhood sexual abuse has been associated with drug abuse in females in several studies. Some studies indicate that up to 70% of women in drug abuse treatment report histories of physical and sexual abuse with victimization beginning before 11 years of age and occurring repeatedly. A study of drug use among young women who became pregnant before reaching 18 years of age reported that 32% had a history of early forced sexual intercourse: rape or incest. These adolescents, compared with non-victims, used more crack, cocaine, and other drugs, had lower self-esteem.

The victimization in female drug abusers may have greater vulnerability to victimization than males. For example, in a recent study of homicide in New York City, 59% of white women and 72% of African American women had been using cocaine prior to death compared with 38% of white males and 44% of African American males. Thus, while cocaine is used by more males than females, its use is a far greater risk factor for victimization for women than men. It is, therefore, critical that the factors involved in the relationship between drug abuse and dependence among females, and physical and sexual victimization.

The pregnant women are an aspect of drug abuse by women that is of particular concern is the use of drugs during pregnancy. Research indicates that pregnant drug users are at increased risk for miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, stillbirth, low weight gain, anemia, thrombocytopenia, hypertension and other medical problems. The National Pregnancy & Health Survey was conducted by NIDA estimate of the number of women who use licit and illicit drugs during pregnancy, approximately 4 million women who deliver live-born children annually in the United States, 5.5% or 221,000 women are projected to have used some illicit drug during pregnancy.

The co-occurring substance abuse disorder and other psychiatric disorders are relatively high for females. Data from a study on female crime victims, for example, indicate that those suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were 17 times more likely to have major drug abuse problems than non-victims. For females a high correlation appears to exist between eating disorders and substance abuse. For example, as many as 55% of bulimic patients are reported to have drug and alcohol use problems. Conversely, 15-40% of females with drug abuse or alcohol problems have been reported to have eating disorder syndromes, usually involving binge eating.

Women face a variety of barriers

The retention, women who abuse drug and alcohol faces a variety of barriers including barriers to treatment entry, to engagement in treatment, and, long-term recovery. In addiction, barriers to entry include a lack of economic resources, referral networks, women-oriented services, and conflicting child-related responsibilities. Because women have many specific needs, a number of components of treatment have been found to be important in attracting and retaining women in treatment. These include the availability of female-sensitive services, non-punitive and non-coercive treatment that incorporates supportive behavioral change approaches, and treatment for a wide range of medical problems, mental disorders, and psycho-social problems.

Finally, the treatment outcomes, a recently national study of individuals in drug abuse treatment programs, showed that women who had at least 28 days of treatment, with at least 14 days in short-term inpatient; had sharp reductions in their use of illicit drugs, HIV risk behavior, and illegal activities. For instance, at intake 84 % of the women who were admitted to long-term residential treatment programs admitted at intake using illegal drugs every day or at least once a week. Twelve months after treatment, only 28% continued to abuse drugs. Short-term inpatient treatment women also showed significant reductions in illegal drug use a year after their treatment with 86% admitting use at intake and 32% reporting use after one year.

The conformity is the most common and pervasive form of social influence. It is generally defined as the tendency to act or think like other members of a group. The group size, unanimity, cohesion, status, and prior commitment all help to determine the level of conformity in an individual. The conformity is usually viewed as a negative tendency in American culture, but a certain amount of conformity is not only necessary and normal, but probably essential for a community to function. The two major motives in the conformity are normative influence, the tendency to conform in order to gain social acceptance, and avoid social rejection or conflict, as in peer pressure; and informational influence, which is based on the desire to obtain useful information through conformity, and there by achieve a correct or appropriate result. Minority influence is the degree to which a smaller faction within the group influences the group during decision making. This refers to a minority position on some issue, not an ethnic minority. Their influence is primarily informational and depends on consistent adherence to a position, degree of defection from the majority, and the status and self-confidence of the minority members. Reactance is a tendency to assert one-self by doing the opposite of what is expected. This phenomenon is also known as anti-conformity and it appears to be more common in men than in women. The differences between man and woman have their origins in an obvious sexual dimorphism . The majority of cultures have established a differentiation of social roles between the sexes which considers them not only distinctive but often antagonistic. The biological differences such as pregnancy in women or the greater physical strength of men have determined the assignation of traditionally dichotomized roles: one characteristic of men and the other characteristic of woman, as much on the educational plane as on that of the family, employment and even in interpersonal relationships of power. In spite of the fact that some separation on the basis of biological differences has been made obsolete by technological changes, the social system, in more advanced societies, collaborates in the perpetuation of this dichotomy of roles.

The gender variable

In current socio-cultural circumstances, the gender variable constitutes a key reference when analyzing and understanding the significance and the effect of certain external common differences between men and women in so far as social attitudes and repercussions on the quality of life are concerned. The attitude towards a situation has been considered as a relative predictor of human behavior and an underlying one in psychological processes and social behaviors. Attitudes towards social aspects in respect of the relationship of equality between women and men have a special and determinant affect on the objective and subjective dimensions of the quality of life and, in an overall concept of the term, health included. The ability to develop an influential and autonomous role is a process which must not only be developed in the first years of infancy and adolescence but one which must be continued in the different stages of adult life. The experiences of participation in the family, school, work place, etc. are key factors in understanding the potential, limitations and obstacles affecting the participation of women in the social system. The assumption of an active social role is not produced in isolated subjects but in individuals linked to the everyday context of interaction between communities.

Therefore, in order to understand the differential effect between men and women in drugs and alcohol consumption, it is necessary to enter the more social terrain where the conditions of individual identity are established. In my professional sociological view the perspective of gender permits analysis of the relationships of power and influence in the configuration of the identity of women. The traditional model of the family is based on a hierarchal relationship of power and activities. The male is allocated the role of authority and the women that of the subordinate, roles segmented by the hierarchy of the social groups with different status. This aspect have been change rapidly and consequent repercussions in new trends in the consumption of drugs. Era of globalization have made big changes in the women behavior, also the new technology, information through internet and information have made a new impact in their daily activities.

The power of relationship between men and women and game of transgression

In addition, the activities allocated to men and women also occupy a position in the social hierarchy, the masculine activities being of greater social value and the feminine ones the most devalued. These activities, those labeled as female, are the most fundamental in social reproduction: care of family members and domestic tasks, without which no social group would survive, and their good administration determines the quality of life. Thus, women are relegated to a subordinate social space but they are allocated tasks which are fundamental but which, paradoxically, are devalued. Added to this model of power relationships between men and women is the constant dialectic game of transgression and use of these roles to their own advantage, by men as much as women but more so the women in order to confront their subordinate position. This game explains why new forms of domination of the masculine spaces are constantly being generated to maintain their position of power and, at the same time, the transgression of the feminine spaces.

I want to point two important aspects that concern this subject. In the first place, the activity of caring for others, the devotion to the family as part of the feminine identity, is a double-edged weapon, it makes the female more dependent on these others, on the males, in particular, but also gives them greater strength and power, given that the development of everyday life and the affective sphere of their families depends on them. There are many women who feel themselves identified with the role of career, and make it the centre of their lives. In our societies, masculine values are not only being perpetuated but are being reinforced giving more value to the activities and spaces which have traditionally been masculine much as the employment/professional one, and maintaining the traditional feminine activities in a devalued position although these, at the same time, are encroaching more and more on the employment space. Some women attempt to integrate themselves in the space with most prestige - the professional one – and distance themselves from the domestic and care space, but others do not achieve it and remain in the most devalued space. In my professional opinion the case of younger women, who are the ones most affected by the social change, some take on the traditional role positively and continue to seek refuge in the invisible power and the potential their position gives them.

In the second place, others women on the contrary, experience a fragmentation of their identity. They are not integrated in the traditional role or part of the prestigious space. In each of these positions, women are vulnerable and protect themselves in different ways and this comes to mean that they face up to the consumption of drugs and drug and alcohol addiction with different personal and social recourses, both in respect of other women as in respect of the men in their group.

The relationship of women and alcohol, tobacco and drugs

Deriving from the interaction of all these factors will be the greater or lesser ability to face fundamental daily life situations which also include the relationship of women and alcohol, tobacco and drugs, the development of drug dependency and its consequences. The majority of the researchers, who have studied women addicts, find significant differentiation basics between men and women drug addiction.

Women take lower quantities of drugs but develop an addiction much faster, take more tranquillizers and sedatives, receive a greater measure of psychiatric attention and are found to be less involved than men in judicial proceedings. They present lower educational levels, have few financial resources and are more concerned than their partners about day-to-day survival. A drug addiction in women involves higher risks and has serious repercussions on their children. In addition, throughout their lives, women also suffer frequent episodes of sexual and physical abuse.

Drug addiction in the twenty-first century and the epidemiology factors

Women drug addiction have different motivations both for initiation and for continuing use and their main motivation for giving up drugs is the care and custody of their children. Finally, women present specific therapeutically necessities which, when not properly approached, become obstacles in access to treatment.

The phenomena of drug addiction in the twenty-first century has brought changes in the epidemiology factors affecting the health and illness of women populations, and the drug addiction in women involves higher risks and has serious repercussions on their children serves. The foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine an important factor of prevention. The importance of women undoubtedly represents a part of the problem which cannot be ignored. The fact that the female drug addicts are a clear minority in respect to the males, in the United States, leads to the situation that together with the needs for assistance on the one hand, and the whole of the evolutionary potentiality are often conformed by an interpretation of the situation which takes on a prevalently male connotation. Indeed, when a problem of drug abuse becomes evident, the female drug addict appears in a condition of greater vulnerability than the male and is more seriously exposed to risks for her health and physical integrity and understanding, of the subject of female identity can undoubtedly contribute significantly towards the understanding of certain psychological aspects, not only at a personal evolutional level but also regarding the social implications since they are the ones most affected by these cultural changes such as life-style with the consequent repercussions in new trends in the consumption of drugs.

The women drug addiction in numbers

Excessive consumption of drug, alcohol and tobacco, the use and abuse of other drugs - especially drugs prescribed minor tranquilizers and sedatives - is a widespread practice among women. This is a reality that is not supported and that most of the time is hidden. According to the Center for Substance Abuse Treatment -1992- (CSAT) in the United States 921.000 young women and teenagers more than 50,000 abused alcohols, 4.4 million women over age 12 had used an illicit drug and 1.3 million used psychotherapeutic drugs for non-medical reasons. These numbers have increased year after year, is a reality. The studies show that addiction to the woman goes on to pose a health concern. Tobacco use, alcohol and other drugs, not only adversely affects health, but in the case of pregnant women affects the whole process of reproduction, from fertilization, pregnancy and childbirth, breastfeeding and development the child. The National Association for Prenatal Addiction Research and Education in the United States has estimated that each year 375,000 children are born to mothers who abuse drugs.

In 1999 a study of Substance Abuse by the Mental Health Services Administration, A National Household Survey on Drug Abuse -1998, estimates that 77.6% of women age 12 and older reported ever using alcohol, while 60% reported past year (1997) use and 45.1% reported using alcohol in the past month. 82.5% of white women reported ever using alcohol, while 65% reported past year use and 49.7% reported using alcohol in the past month. 67.9% of black women reported ever using alcohol, while 45.1% reported past year use and 32.3% reported using alcohol in the past month. 60.8% of Hispanic women reported ever using alcohol, while 48.4% reported past year use and 33.6% reported using alcohol in the past month. Among current female drinkers, 7.16% of whites, 10.22% of blacks, 22.16% of American Indians/Alaska Native, and 9.03% of Hispanics reported alcohol dependence. Men and women reported different levels of alcohol involvement. 58.7% of men age 12 and older reported past month alcohol use compared to 45.1% of women, while 23.2% of men age 12 and older reported binge drinking in the past month compared to 8.6% of women.

Women absorb and metabolize alcohol differently than men. Alcohol and tobacco consumption is associated with a linear increase in breast cancer incidence in women over the range of consumption reported by most women. A pooled analysis of several studies found breast cancer risk was significantly elevated by 9% for each 10-gram per day increase in alcohol intake for intakes up to 60 grams per day. Although the mean lifetime dose of alcohol in female alcoholics is only 60% of that in male alcoholics, one study noted that cardiomyopathy (a degenerative disease of the heart muscle) and myopathy (a degenerative disease of skeletal muscle) was as common in female alcoholics as in males. The study concluded that women are more susceptible than men to the toxic effects of alcohol and tobacco on the heart muscle. Brain shrinkage in men and women was found to be similar despite significantly shorter periods of alcohol exposure or drinking histories in women.

Women with chronic pancreatitis have shorter drinking histories than that of men. Women with alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis were found to have consumed less alcohol per body weight per day than men. These findings indicate that women are more vulnerable to alcoholic liver disease than men. Although alcohol problems are more common in male trauma patients, women with alcohol problems are just as severely impaired, have at least as many adverse consequences of alcohol use, and have more evidence of alcohol-related physical and psychological harm.

Using cultural analysis as a perspective for gaining gendered information may allow for identifying new patterns within specific cultural and subgroup contexts. It may contribute new information to the following treatment research areas: gender-appropriate measurement issues; service integration; appropriate services for women; and drug abuse, drinking rituals and tobacco patterns.

Jorge Yeshayahu Gonzales-Lara

 

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